Theory of second best pdf

Here are the five central comprehension. It should not only i The Acquisition versus Learning describe certain phenomena but also offer Hypothesis. Here it is important acquisition, while learning is a conscious that theorists do not over-estimate the process resulting into "knowing about truth-value of their theory McLaughlin, language" Krashen, Learning In assessing the place without learning in informal validity and usefulness of a theory one environments Krashen, , Learning has coherence as well as the predictions that the function of monitoring and editing the the theory makes - researchers are always utterances produced through the interested in and look for theories that can acquisition process Krashen, There theories were developed along the lines of is a natural order of acquisition of second first language acquisition theories.

Over language rules. Some of them are early- the past three decades, studies in acquired and some are late-acquired. This linguistics have focused on second order does not necessarily depend on language acquisition investigating how a simplicity of form while it could be second language is acquired, describing influenced by classroom instruction different stages of development and Krashen, Evidence for the Natural assessing whether second language Order Hypothesis was provided by a series acquisition follows a similar route to that of research studies investigating of first language acquisition.

A number of morpheme acquisition orders. According to inductively, and research in the second Krashen, receiving comprehensible input language classroom flourished. Furthermore, the role v The Affective Filter Hypothesis. Krashen's Monitor Theory is an Despite the various criticisms, example of a macro theory attempting to Krashen's Monitor Theory of second cover most of the factors involved in language acquisition had a great impact on second language acquisition: age, the way second language learning was personality traits, classroom instruction, viewed, and initiated research towards the innate mechanisms of language discovery of orders of acquisition.

Interlanguage Theories Despite its popularity, the Monitor Theory The term interlanguage was first was criticized by theorists and researchers used by Selinker to describe the mainly on the grounds of its definitional linguistic stage second language learners adequacy.

Since then, acquisition-learning dichotomy. This section outlines the three cannot be used and since it is the only way main approaches to the description of in which learning can be utilized, there is interlanguage systems.

McLaughlin rules. These rules are the product of five acknowledges Krashen's attempt to main cognitive processes: develop an extensive and detailed theory of second language acquisition but finds it i Overgeneralisation. Some of the rules inadequate in that some of its central of the interlanguage system may be the assumptions and hypotheses are not result of the overgeneralisation of specific clearly defined and thus are not readily rules and features of the target language.

Robertson for an investigation of iii Strategies of Second Language grammaticality judgments based on "feel" Learning. Interlanguage system use of syntactic, phonological and rules may also be the result of strategies morphological structures Tarone, Different approaches were employed for explaining the acquisition of Selinker's description of the interlanguage and how learners discover interlanguage system has a cognitive and organize form-function relationships emphasis and a focus on the strategies that in a second language.

Ellis argues learners employ when learning a second that learners begin with forms which are language. A different approach to the used in free variation during the early theory of interlanguage was adopted by stages of second language acquisition Adjemian in his attempt to describe non-systematic variability until more the nature of the interlanguage systems.

Zobl a, b description of interlanguage was initiated investigated the L1 influence on L2 by Tarone , The interlanguage systems: interlanguages are new target language forms first appear in systematic systematicity either in the form the more careful style and progressively of learning strategies the learners employ move towards the vernacular style. The scope of A model very similar to Chomsky's these approaches is also common: Universal Grammar was proposed by Felix interlanguage is seen as a kind of interim Morpheme Cognitive System LSC-system and the studies were employed to describe the Problem-Solving system PSC-system systematicity of interlanguage systems and and it is responsible for the differences in also the various stages of interlanguage the learning processes employed by development until the target form is children and adults.

It is argued that the acquired. Even though the LSC- However, Error Analysis as a mode of system is governed by principles similar to inquiry was limited in its scope and the principles of the Universal Grammar, concentrated on what learners did wrong the principles of the PSC-system are rather than on what made them successful largely unknown Felix, In Another UG based theory, the that respect, interlanguage theories are Creative Construction theory, was limited in their explanatory power.

These principles are biologically the system of the language they are determined and specialized for language acquiring until the mismatch between learning Chomsky, , , It Burt, Empirical evidence from referred to the first language learner. Its comparing the errors produced by Spanish principles though were adopted by second children learning English with those language researchers and were applied in produced by children learning English as the field of second language acquisition.

The use of UG for similar orders, Dulay and Burt conclude language transfer, fossilization and L2 that it is the L2 system rather than the L1 pedagogy was also suggested.

According to this model The only areas that acquisition, and generative theorists regard cognitive development is related to UG as the best theory of grammar because language development is vocabulary and of its descriptive and explanatory meaning, since lexical items and meaning adequacy Ellis, , empirical relations are most readily related to a evidence has been restricted to the conceptual base Felix, A general theory of second claimed by the interactivist approach to language acquisition needs to cover a second language learning Clahsen, The Multidimensional Model has However, the differences between the both explanatory and predictive power in various cognitive models makes it that it not only identifies stages of impossible to construct a comprehensive linguistic development but it also explains cognitive theory of second language why learners go through these acquisition and furthermore, as Schimdt developmental stages and it predicts when observes: other grammatical structures will be acquired Ellis, In this respect environments.

The the degree to which a developmental stage is defined by learner acculturates to the accuracy orders and developmental target-language group will sequences, but within a stage learners may control the degree to which differ because of their social-psychological he acquires the second orientation, which is independent of language. Thus a The the degree of social and psychological segregative learner is more likely to distance between the learner and the fossilize at that stage than is the target-language culture.

Social distance integrative learner who has a more refers to the learner as a member of a positive attitude towards learning the social group that is in contact with another target language and a better chance of social group whose members speak a different language. Each theory affective factors that concern the learner as offers a different insight in the complex an individual, such as language shock, process of second language acquisition. Another Also, pidginization is a group explanation based on the affective factors phenomenon, while language acquisition influencing second language acquisition is an individual phenomenon.

Finally, the could suggest that the learners in their acculturation model fails to explain how effort to match the gestalt of the native the social factors influence the quality of speaker input to which they are exposed, contact the learners experience Ellis, acquire and produce the appropriate Larsen-Freeman SUMMARY concludes that there is not a single The second language acquisition explanation that could work for all theories reviewed in this paper have paid learners, and that different learners may attention to different aspects of the second rely on different strategies when learning a language acquisition process and have second language, depending on a number provided valuable background and of different variables such as the target hypotheses for numerous research studies.

Whether proficiency in the target language, etc. Dulay, H. Should we teach children syntax? I wish to thank Dr. Acton and Dulay, H. Natural Mr. Taylor for reading this article in sequences in child second language draft and for suggesting improvements. Language Learning, However, I remain solely responsible for 24, Ellis, R.

Sources of variability in interlanguage. Adjemian, C. On the nature of Ellis, R. The study of second interlanguage systems. Language language acquisition. Oxford: Learning, 26, Oxford University Press. Berman, R. Cognitive principles Felix, S. On the in applicability of and language acquisition. Piagetian thought to language Pfaff Ed.

Studies in Second language acquisition processes, Language Acquisition, 3 2 , pp. Cambridge, Mass. Felix, S. More evidence on Bley-Vroman, R. The accessibility of Second Language Research, 1 1 , universal grammar in adult Second Gregg, K. Applied Chomsky, N. Linguistics and Linguistics, 5, Hook, Ed. Interlanguage and the Language and philosophy.

New pro-drop parameter. Language Research, 2 1 , Chomsky, N. For more information on the source of this book, or why it is available for free, please see the project's home page. You can browse or download additional books there. To download a. The theory of the second best was formalized by Richard Lipsey and Kelvin Lancaster in The primary focus of the theory is what happens when the optimum conditions are not satisfied in an economic model.

In this section, we will provide an overview of the main results and indicate some of the implications for trade policy analysis. We will then consider various applications of the theory to international trade policy issues. First of all, one must note that economic models consist of exercises in which a set of assumptions is used to deduce a series of logical conclusions. The solution of a model is referred to as an equilibrium. An equilibrium is typically described by explaining the conditions or relationships that must be satisfied in order for the equilibrium to be realized.

These are called the equilibrium conditions. In economic models, these conditions arise from the maximizing behavior of producers and consumers. Thus the solution is also called an optimum. In a general equilibrium model with many consumers, firms, industries, and markets, there will be numerous equilibrium conditions that must be satisfied simultaneously. For example, what happens if one of the markets does not clear—that is, supply does not equal demand in that one market?

Would it still be appropriate for the firms to set the price equal to the marginal cost? Should consumers continue to set each price ratio equal to their marginal rate of substitution? Or would it be better if firms and consumers deviated from these conditions? Lipsey and Lancaster show that, generally, when one optimal equilibrium condition is not satisfied, for whatever reason, all the other equilibrium conditions will change.

Thus if one market does not clear, it would no longer be optimal for firms to set the price equal to the marginal cost or for consumers to set the price ratio equal to the marginal rate of substitution. Consider a small perfectly competitive open economy that has no market imperfections or distortions, no externalities in production or consumption, and no public goods. This is an economy in which all resources are privately owned, the participants maximize their own well-being, firms maximize profit, and consumers maximize utility—always in the presence of perfect information.

Markets always clear and there are no adjustment costs or unemployment of resources. The optimal government policy in this case is laissez-faire. With respect to trade policies, the optimal policy is free trade. Any type of tax or subsidy implemented by the government under these circumstances can only reduce economic efficiency and national welfare.

Thus with a laissez-faire policy, the resulting equilibrium would be called first best. It is useful to think of this market condition as economic nirvana since there is no conceivable way of increasing economic efficiency at a first-best equilibrium A market equilibrium that arises in the absence of any market imperfections or distortions; in other words, under the standard assumptions of perfect competition.

Of course, the real world is unlikely to be so perfectly characterized. Instead, markets will likely have numerous distortions and imperfections. Some production and consumption activities have externality effects.

Some goods have public good characteristics. Some markets have a small number of firms, each of which has some control over the price that prevails and makes positive economic profit. Governments invariably set taxes on consumption, profit, property and assets, and so on.

Finally, information is rarely perfectly and costlessly available. Now imagine again a small, open, perfectly competitive economy with no market imperfections or distortions. Suppose we introduce one distortion or imperfection into such an economy. The resulting equilibrium will now be less efficient from a national perspective than when the distortion was not present. In other words, the introduction of one distortion would reduce the optimal level of national welfare.

For example, suppose the imperfection that is introduced is the presence of a monopolistic firm in an industry. Since the economic optimum obtained in these circumstances would be less efficient than in economic nirvana, we would call this equilibrium a second-best equilibrium A market equilibrium that arises in the presence of one or more market imperfections or distortions.

Second-best equilibria arise whenever all the equilibrium conditions satisfying economic nirvana cannot occur simultaneously. In general, second-best equilibria arise whenever there are market imperfections or distortions present.

An economic rationale for government intervention in the private market arises whenever there are uncorrected market imperfections or distortions. In these circumstances, the economy is characterized by a second-best rather than a first-best equilibrium. In the best of cases, the government policy can correct the distortions completely and the economy would revert back to the state under economic nirvana.

If the distortion is not corrected completely, then at least the new equilibrium conditions, altered by the presence of the distortion, can all be satisfied. In either case, an appropriate government policy can act to correct or reduce the detrimental effects of the market imperfection or distortion, raise economic efficiency, and improve national welfare. It is for this reason that many types of trade policies can be shown to improve national welfare. Trade policies, chosen appropriate to the market circumstances, act to correct the imperfections or distortions.

This remains true even though the trade policies themselves would act to reduce economic efficiency if applied starting from a state of economic nirvana.

What happens is that the policy corrects the distortion or imperfection and thus raises national welfare by more than the loss in welfare arising from the application of the policy. Many different types of policies can be applied, even for the same distortion or imperfection. Governments can apply taxes, subsidies, or quantitative restrictions. They can apply these to production, to consumption, or to factor usage. Sometimes they even apply two or more of these policies simultaneously in the same market.

Trade policies, like tariffs or export taxes, are designed to directly affect the flow of goods and services between countries. Domestic policies, like production subsidies or consumption taxes, are directed at a particular activity that occurs within the country but is not targeted directly at trade flows. One prominent area of trade policy research focuses on identifying the optimal policy to be used in a particular second-best equilibrium situation.

Invariably, this research has considered multiple policy options in any one situation and has attempted to rank order the potential policies in terms of their efficiency-enhancing capabilities.

As with the ranking of equilibria described above, the ranking of policy options is also typically characterized using the first-best and second-best labels. Thus the ideal or optimal policy choice in the presence of a particular market distortion or imperfection is referred to as a first-best policy. The first-best policy will raise national welfare, or enhance aggregate economic efficiency, to the greatest extent possible in a particular situation.